Questões de Inglês

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What causes antibiotic resistance?

 

§1  Most of us will have taken antibiotics at some point in our lives. But what if nothing happens the next time you pop one of those little bug-busting pills? Your life could be in serious danger.

 

§2  The WHO (World Health Organization) calls antibiotic resistance ‘one of the biggest threats to global health.’ The need for new drugs is great.

 

§3  Bacteria are an integral part of our ecosystem and we share our bodies with many of these tiny creatures. However, they can be the root of serious health problems.

 

§4  There are roughly as many human cells as bacterial cells in our bodies, and our microscopic passengers pay their way by helping our immune system and contributing to our metabolism.

 

§5  But bacteria come in all manner of guises. Some can turn from friend to foe, while others are just plain nasty and will make us sick at any chance they get.

 

§6  Since their discovery in the 1920s and their introduction into mainstream medicine after World War Two, we’ve been relying on antibiotics to keep pathogenic bacteria at bay.

 

§7  Antibacterial resistance is on the rise, however. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), each year in the United States, at least 2,049,442 illnesses are caused by resistance to medicines prescribed to treat bacterial or fungal infections. What is more, 23,000 people die each year when these drugs fail to work.

 

§8  So, why have our once reliable antibacterials stopped working, and how do the pesky bugs manage to outfox us? It’s all about mutations. Mutations are a ‘natural phenomenon’.

 

§9  Bacteria are prone to DNA mutations. This is part of their natural evolution and allows them to constantly adapt their genetic makeup. When one bug naturally becomes resistant to a drug, it survives when all others are killed.

 

§10  Now it’s a race against the clock. How quickly can this one bacterium adapt to the new mutation, and how quickly can it replicate in the face of species eradication? If the bug comes on out top, it’s bad news for the infected individual and bad news for society at large: the drug-resistant bacterium will likely spread.

 

§11  Not only has it evaded the grim reaper, but it can also now spread the love by passing the resistance to its numerous offspring, who will soon be the dominant species on the block.

 

§12  Bacteria are also able to pass genes to other bacteria. This is known as horizontal gene transfer, or “bacterial sex.” While this process is actually quite rare, bacteria are highly mobile creatures, which gives them plenty of opportunity to come into contact with other microbes and pass on their mutated genes.

 

§13  But how do genetic mutations equip bacteria with the skills to outsmart antibiotics?

 

§14  A study recently published in Nature Communications sheds new light on how Echerichia coli and other members of the Enterobacteria family fight off commonly used antibiotics. A gene called mar is commonly shared by family members. Some of the proteins encoded in this gene can switch on other genes, explain researchers from the University of Birmingham’s Institute of Microbiology and Infection in the United Kingdom.

 

§15  “We found two completely unexpected mechanisms,” says senior study author Prof. David Grainger, “that bacteria use to protect themselves from antibiotics. One protected their DNA from the harmful effects of fluoroquinolone antibiotics, and the other prevented doxycyline getting inside bacteria.” But finding out how Enterobacteria combat antibiotics is only the first step in this decade-long research project.

 

§16  First study author Prateek Sharma, Ph.D., says that “the resistance mechanisms that we identified are found in many different species of bacteria therefore, our research could lead to the discovery of molecules that could be developed into new drugs that can treat bacterial infections.”

 

§17  This week is World Antibiotic Awareness Week. The WHO aims to warn people that inappropriate use of antimicrobials makes drug resistance worse. This includes both overuse and underuse. This year, they urge everyone to “seek advice from a qualified healthcare professional before taking antibiotics.”

 

(Published on 14 November 2017 By Yella Hewings-Martin PhD Fact checked by Jasmin Collier) (Adapted from https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/320070.php)

According to the text, what does the World Health Organization say about antibiotic resistance?

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The circadian rhythm research that just won a Nobel prize in medicine, explained

 

The award celebrates the study of the tiny biological clocks in every living thing.

 

Three American scientists have won the Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine for their discoveries of the microscopic biological machinery that controls the circadian rhythm, or the 24-hour body clock.

 

Humans, plants, and animals are all ruled by an internal clock that runs on a 24-hour, light-dark cycle in sync with the sun. And there’s not just one of these clocks inside us: They’re in every single cell of every organism — from a tiny bacterium to a large redwood tree.

 

In humans, these biological clocks anticipate various activities throughout the day, from waking up to sleeping and eating, by regulating things like hormone levels, temperature, and metabolism. Our circadian rhythm is intimately tied to our health and well-being (which helps explain why jet lag or a late-night shift work can be so draining and harmful).

 

The three Nobel laureates — Jeffrey C. Hall of the University of Maine, Michael Rosbash of Brandeis University, and Michael W. Young of Rockefeller University — “were able to peek inside our biological clock and elucidate its inner workings,” the Nobel Prize Committee said in a press release. “Their discoveries explain how plants, animals, and humans adapt their biological rhythm so that it is synchronized with the Earth's revolutions.”

Adaptado de: https://www.vox.com/science-andhealth/2017/10/2/16396486/2017-nobel-prize-award-medicinephysiology-michael-rosbash-jeffrey-hall-michael-young Acessado em 03 de outubro de 2017.

The Nobel Prize winning study could explain why latenight shift work

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Why some people can’t cope with the sight of blood

 

In evolutionary terms it could be useful to faint if there’s blood around

 

At Science Gallery London, we were immersed in blood as we worked on our current exhibition. We also brushed up on our first aid as we expected some visitors to exhibit a particular response to the material we presented. But why do people faint at the sight of blood?

 

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) has historically treated blood, injection or injury phobia as a specific sub category, for good biological reason. With many other phobias, exposure to the stimulus (a picture of a spider, say) results in an increase in heart rate. But with blood, this is followed by a sudden decrease in heart rate and blood pressure, which can lead to fainting. This latter element is similar to the disgust response and is opposite to pure fear. In evolutionary terms, this may be useful if it’s you who’s been injured, since it might stop you from losing blood. And some have wondered whether it’s an automatic version of ‘playing dead’. If someone in your group has been badly injured, it may be worth keeping your head down. Whatever its origins, it certainly adds an interesting layer to an exhibition experience.

Disponível em: https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2017/oct/08/why-somepeople-cant-cope-with-the-sight-of-blood#img-1/ Acessado em 08 de outubro de 2017.

Fainting due to the sighting of blood

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Why some people can’t cope with the sight of blood

 

In evolutionary terms it could be useful to faint if there’s blood around

 

At Science Gallery London, we were immersed in blood as we worked on our current exhibition. We also brushed up on our first aid as we expected some visitors to exhibit a particular response to the material we presented. But why do people faint at the sight of blood?

 

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) has historically treated blood, injection or injury phobia as a specific sub category, for good biological reason. With many other phobias, exposure to the stimulus (a picture of a spider, say) results in an increase in heart rate. But with blood, this is followed by a sudden decrease in heart rate and blood pressure, which can lead to fainting. This latter element is similar to the disgust response and is opposite to pure fear. In evolutionary terms, this may be useful if it’s you who’s been injured, since it might stop you from losing blood. And some have wondered whether it’s an automatic version of ‘playing dead’. If someone in your group has been badly injured, it may be worth keeping your head down. Whatever its origins, it certainly adds an interesting layer to an exhibition experience.

Disponível em: https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2017/oct/08/why-somepeople-cant-cope-with-the-sight-of-blood#img-1/ Acessado em 08 de outubro de 2017.

Exhibitors got their first aid ready

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Biometric Identifies You in a Heartbeat

 

Like fingerprints and facial recognition, the shape and beat of your heart can be used to verify your identity.

 

Smartphones can already verify your identity by scanning your fingerprint or your face. But there’s something inside you that’s also unique proof that you’re you.

 

Researchers have developed a device that uses lowpowered Doppler radar to decode the unique geometry of a user's heart…and how it squeezes and swells as it beats. That biometric information can authenticate the identity of the person under scrutiny.

 

And if the wrong person sits down: "It would recognize that there is a heart, but the geometry of my heart is different from yours so it would still log me out." Wenyao Xu is a computer scientist at the University at Buffalo who helped develop the tech.

 

He says this unusual biometric is robust, because it's actually two different biometrics. The first is the shape of your heart—a 'biologic' biometric or static trait, like fingerprints or iris patterns. The second is the beating of your heart: what's called a 'behavioral' biometric—which analyzes a dynamic process, and can be harder to spoof.

 

So far they've tested the system on about 100 people—with an accuracy of over 98 percent. They'll present the results this month at the MobiCom conference in Utah.

 

Xu says the radiation from the device isn't harmful—just a fraction of that we get from our smartphones. But at a couple inches in size, the unit’s not quite ready to fit inside a smartphone. "Uh, not yet. So we're waiting for the call from Apple." Because ya gotta have heart. But you also gotta have funding.

Disponível em: Acessado em 07 de outubro de 2017.

In “…which analyzes a dynamic process, and can be harder to spoof” the word spoof is equivalent to

HOW TO ESCAPE THE ONLINE SPIES

WHETHER YOU’RE TWEETING, SHOPPING OR JUST BROWSING, INTERNET COMPANIES ARE MONITORING YOU.

 

  Nobody likes being spied on. When you’re innocently browsing the web, it’s deeply unpleasant to think that faceless technology corporations are monitoring and recording your every move.

  While such data collection is legal, that doesn’t mean it’s all right. There are plenty of things you might prefer to keep to yourself, such as your income, your sexuality, your political views or your membership of the Yoko Ono fanclub.

  While you might console yourself with the knowledge that all of this information is mostly used for targeting ads, that might not be the case for much longer. The internet giants are building up ever more detailed user profiles – and finding new ways to exploit that information.

  Even if you’ve nothing to hide, therefore, it may be wise to minimise your exposure to online tracking. Here’s how Google spy on you – and how to protect your privacy

 

GOOGLE

 

  Most of us use Google services every day, and as a result the web giant knows a huge amount about our movements and interests. You can find out everything it’s learned about you at myaccount.google.com. Your data is all set out in an impressively forthright way; the only problem is, there’s so much information to work through that it can be bewildering to navigate.

  One section that’s worth your attention is “Manage your Google activity”. Here you’ll find Google’s activity controls, which let you disable various types of data collection. For example, you can tell Google not to log your Chrome browsing history and activity, to stop tracking your location and to desist from keeping records of any voice commands you might issue. Turning these features off can make Google services less smart, but you might consider that a price worth paying.

  For a closer look at the information Google’s been collecting on you lately, click on “My activity”. This brings up a timeline showing all of your searches, webpage visits, Android app activity and so forth. Seeing your digital life laid bare like this can be pretty unnerving: if there’s something you’d prefer Google to forget, simply click on the menu icon to its right and delete.

  If you want to thoroughly inspect everything Google knows about you, you can even download a comprehensive archive of personal information by clicking on “Control your content” > “Download your data”. Be warned, though, this archive can be huge: the default settings include all the emails in your Gmail account, and any videos you may have uploaded to YouTube.

  If you want to limit the information you share with Google in the future, the easiest way is simply to use it less. For example, try the privacy-focused search engine at duckduckgo.com, and use an alternative browser such as Firefox

Fonte: https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/may/13/ how-to-get-privacy-digital-life-data-monitoring-gathering-amazon-facebook-google (editado). Acesso em: 10 de novembro de 2017.

 

Segundo o texto, as informações que o usuário gera ao navegar pela internet podem servir para fins outros que não apenas publicitários. A empresa Google, por exemplo, oferece recursos que permitem ao usuário evitar a espionagem excessiva. Abaixo, marque a alternativa em que constam as orientações sobre como evitar o recolhimento de informações pelo Google, de acordo com o texto: