Questões de Inglês

TEXTO:

   Scientists in Australia have discovered a cave
filled with the remains of prehistoric mammals. The
find reveals some surprising similarities between these
lost creatures and modern-day kangaroos and koalas.
[5]     The treasure trove of preserved fossils found in
an outback cave has given paleontologists a rare view
into the weird and breathtaking world of prehistoric
Australia.
    Researchers from the University of New South
[10] Wales say they’ve found the remains of some of the
strangest specimens anyone could possibly imagine.
The discovery includes 26 skulls from an extinct,
wombat-like marsupial that was an odd-looking
creature the size of a sheep, which had giant claws.
[15] These may have been used to climb trees — as koalas
do today.
    Finding such a large cluster of fossils has
indicated these lost animals may have roamed the
countryside in herds — like modern-day kangaroos.
[20] How they ended up deep underground is a mystery.
One theory is they accidentally plunged into the cave
through an opening that was obscured by vegetation.
They either died from the fall, or became trapped and
starved to death.
[25]     These ancient gems were unearthed at the
famous Riversleigh World Heritage fossil fields in
north-western Queensland, which scientists have
been exploring since the early 1990s. Its ancient

deposits are among the richest and most extensive
[30] to be found anywhere.

MERGER, Phil. Cave of fossils found in Australia. Disponível em: www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/language/wordsinth enews/2010/07/100719_witn_marsupials_page.shtml. Acesso em: 10 nov. 2020.

TEXTO:

     I will always remember my delight when Mrs.
Georgia Gilmore — an unlettered woman of unusual
intelligence — told how an operator demanded that
she get off the bus after paying her fare and board it
again by the back door, and then drove away before
she could get there. She turned to Judge Carter and
said: “When they count the money, they do not know
Negro money from white money.”

Martin Luther King, Jr., March 1956 Disponível em: http://www.quotegarden.com/mlk-day.html. Acesso em: 10 nov. 2020.

Why stress is so dangerous

§1 In November 2017, two eye surgeons from a hospital in Beirut reported an intriguing case of
visual loss in a colleague. A specialist in the retina, the colleague had suddenly developed
a patch of blurry vision in one eye just a day or two after an intensely stressful day in the
operating room. This was not the first time it had happened. The surgeon had experienced
four such episodes in just a year, each preceded by a stressful day of operating. The retinal
surgeon was diagnosed with central serous chorioretinopathy (CSCR). A small amount of fluid
had collected beneath a tiny region of the surgeon's retina, causing it to temporarily detach.
The condition resolved after a few weeks, and a strict stress-management plan prevented
another episode from happening again.

§2 Reflecting on what had made their colleague vulnerable to stress, the surgeons noted new
surgical techniques made possible with better technology had stretched the physical limits
of what a surgeon is able to do. While this progress had expanded the scope of surgery,
operating at these limits placed immense mental strain on the surgeon.

§3 In 1959, management pundit Peter Drucker had predicted a dramatic transition in the nature of
work would take place 50 years later. He coined a term for this new kind of work, “knowledge
work” and anticipated the change would involve a move from physical to mental effort. He
later wrote the center of gravity of work would shift to “the man who puts to work what he has
between his ears rather than the skill of his hands”. The evolution of eye surgery has validated
some of Drucker’s predictions. As technology improves, it transmutes the physical skill of the
surgeon’s hands into the mental skills of analysis and concentration. The evolving nature of
work demands less from the body and more from the mind – meaning the mind is becoming
a greater victim of occupational hazards.

§4 According to the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) of the United Kingdom, stress, depression
or anxiety accounted for 57% of all “sick days” in 2017/2018. The mind’s rising leverage over
productivity is prompting interest in what might be impeding its performance. The focus has
fallen on stress.

§5 Researches have revealed an acute stress reaction is built upon a rich tapestry of processes.
We know today that bungee jumpers become insulin resistant immediately following a bungee
jump, and the stress of lecturing 200 students raises markers of inflammation in college
professors. These processes offer a survival advantage under threat. The temporary insulin
resistance, for instance, ensures sugar reaches a brain under duress, while inflammation
holds a protective shield against unwelcome visitors entering through battle wounds.

§6 The effects of a healthy, acute stress reaction are mostly temporary, ceasing when a stressful
experience is over, and any lasting effects can sometimes leave us better than we were before.
Studies on rats, for instance, found that the stress from being restrained for a few hours may
increase the number of “newborn” brain cells in a part of the rat’s brain, which can correspond
to better performance in certain kinds of memory tests.

§7 Stress that is too frequent, too intense or constantly present, however, puts us under prolonged
strain. Many of the players in the stress response have so-called “non-linear dose-dependent
actions” meaning their effects change course with prolonged activity. As a result, chronic
stress induces a gradual, persistent shift in psychological and physiological parameters that
tips the scales towards disorder along different pathways.

§8 The sympathetic and parasympathetic arms of the autonomic nervous system – a nerve
network controlling involuntary processes such as blood pressure, breathing and digestion
– play a pivotal role in orchestrating the acute stress response. During times of fear or
anger, sympathetic activity (responsible for the “fight-or-flight” response) temporarily rises
and parasympathetic activity (underlining “rest-and-digest” responses) falls. If this pattern of
activity persists in the absence of stress, however, it can tilt us towards hypertension and
other illnesses. Similarly, while temporary emotional reactivity in acute stress helps us predict
danger, a sustained change in the dynamics of emotion regulation can tilt us towards mood
disorders.

§9 Mental strain is a performance-limiting factor in an age where physical load is increasingly
converted into mental load. As we transition further into the information age, it is time for the
enigma of chronic stress to finally move into the spotlight.

By Mithu Storoni.
13th August 2019. (Adapted from https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20190813-burnout-anxiety-stress-proof-relief).

Why stress is so dangerous

§1 In November 2017, two eye surgeons from a hospital in Beirut reported an intriguing case of
visual loss in a colleague. A specialist in the retina, the colleague had suddenly developed
a patch of blurry vision in one eye just a day or two after an intensely stressful day in the
operating room. This was not the first time it had happened. The surgeon had experienced
four such episodes in just a year, each preceded by a stressful day of operating. The retinal
surgeon was diagnosed with central serous chorioretinopathy (CSCR). A small amount of fluid
had collected beneath a tiny region of the surgeon's retina, causing it to temporarily detach.
The condition resolved after a few weeks, and a strict stress-management plan prevented
another episode from happening again.

§2 Reflecting on what had made their colleague vulnerable to stress, the surgeons noted new
surgical techniques made possible with better technology had stretched the physical limits
of what a surgeon is able to do. While this progress had expanded the scope of surgery,
operating at these limits placed immense mental strain on the surgeon.

§3 In 1959, management pundit Peter Drucker had predicted a dramatic transition in the nature of
work would take place 50 years later. He coined a term for this new kind of work, “knowledge
work” and anticipated the change would involve a move from physical to mental effort. He
later wrote the center of gravity of work would shift to “the man who puts to work what he has
between his ears rather than the skill of his hands”. The evolution of eye surgery has validated
some of Drucker’s predictions. As technology improves, it transmutes the physical skill of the
surgeon’s hands into the mental skills of analysis and concentration. The evolving nature of
work demands less from the body and more from the mind – meaning the mind is becoming
a greater victim of occupational hazards.

§4 According to the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) of the United Kingdom, stress, depression
or anxiety accounted for 57% of all “sick days” in 2017/2018. The mind’s rising leverage over
productivity is prompting interest in what might be impeding its performance. The focus has
fallen on stress.

§5 Researches have revealed an acute stress reaction is built upon a rich tapestry of processes.
We know today that bungee jumpers become insulin resistant immediately following a bungee
jump, and the stress of lecturing 200 students raises markers of inflammation in college
professors. These processes offer a survival advantage under threat. The temporary insulin
resistance, for instance, ensures sugar reaches a brain under duress, while inflammation
holds a protective shield against unwelcome visitors entering through battle wounds.

§6 The effects of a healthy, acute stress reaction are mostly temporary, ceasing when a stressful
experience is over, and any lasting effects can sometimes leave us better than we were before.
Studies on rats, for instance, found that the stress from being restrained for a few hours may
increase the number of “newborn” brain cells in a part of the rat’s brain, which can correspond
to better performance in certain kinds of memory tests.

§7 Stress that is too frequent, too intense or constantly present, however, puts us under prolonged
strain. Many of the players in the stress response have so-called “non-linear dose-dependent
actions” meaning their effects change course with prolonged activity. As a result, chronic
stress induces a gradual, persistent shift in psychological and physiological parameters that
tips the scales towards disorder along different pathways.

§8 The sympathetic and parasympathetic arms of the autonomic nervous system – a nerve
network controlling involuntary processes such as blood pressure, breathing and digestion
– play a pivotal role in orchestrating the acute stress response. During times of fear or
anger, sympathetic activity (responsible for the “fight-or-flight” response) temporarily rises
and parasympathetic activity (underlining “rest-and-digest” responses) falls. If this pattern of
activity persists in the absence of stress, however, it can tilt us towards hypertension and
other illnesses. Similarly, while temporary emotional reactivity in acute stress helps us predict
danger, a sustained change in the dynamics of emotion regulation can tilt us towards mood
disorders.

§9 Mental strain is a performance-limiting factor in an age where physical load is increasingly
converted into mental load. As we transition further into the information age, it is time for the
enigma of chronic stress to finally move into the spotlight.

By Mithu Storoni.
13th August 2019. (Adapted from https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20190813-burnout-anxiety-stress-proof-relief).

Text

Weight reduction of a carbon fibre composite wheel

Stefan Czypionka and Frank Kienhofer

    Abstract — The wheel of a passenger vehicle must be designed to be safe and light. (...) Manufacturing and testing carbon fibre reinforced plastics (CFRP) prototypes is expensive. Thus, it is advantageous to develop simulation models for composite weight reduction. The simulation models can provide insight into how lighter CFRP wheels can be designed. This study presents the design development of a CFRP wheel for a high-performance roadster; the CFRP wheel is offered by an automotive manufacturer as a high-performance option instead of aluminium wheels. Finite element (FE) simulations were initially conducted assuming an isotropic material. This initial model was used to eliminate stress concentrations and to design and manufacture an initial CFRP wheel. The CFRP wheel weight is 6.8 kg as compared to the original aluminium wheel which weighs 8.1 kg. This initial design passed the dynamic cornering fatigue test (the most stringent strength test for wheels). Thereafter the wheel was instrumented with strain gauges, and a bending moment was applied to the hub using a custom-built test rig. The test rig produced a static load equivalent to the dynamic cornering fatigue test (in which the applied bending moment varies sinusoidally). (...)

1. Introduction
1.1 Background

    The wheel is arguably one of the most important components of a road going vehicle. It is responsible for the transmission of power from the drive components of the vehicle to the road, while also enabling the vehicle to make directional changes. Overdesigning a wheel by adding material increases the wheel mass and rotational inertia which negatively affects the vehicle’s performance and efficiency. This has led to substantial development efforts to reduce the wheel weight and rotational inertia while simultaneously maintaining or increasing the material strength. A wheel must be designed to be safe and light.

    Numerous research studies have been published on the development of steel and aluminium wheels. Steel and aluminium alloy wheels have arguably reached the peak of possible weight reduction and composite materials offer the next advance. Despite the tremendous potential of carbon fibre as an automotive material due to high strength, low density and superior fatigue properties,   (38)   . Giger and Ermanni demonstrated the development process of a CFRP motorcycle rim. However, this wheel was not tested to certified standards. Rondina et al. investigated a high volume production method for carbon fibre wheels. The paper simulated the production process; however, no certified wheel appears to have been produced. As early as 1979, studies have been conducted into the viability of composites for use as automotive wheels.

    Unlike isotropic materials, CFRP components are expensive to test and certify. Even small changes in geometry to prevent failure or reduce stresses could cause a production line to be retooled during the development process and existing equipment to be scrapped. This research paper illustrates the development of a validated finite element (FE) model to investigate laminate configurations to improve the stiffness of the CFRP wheel and be 18% lighter than the original aluminium wheel. The case study is of an original equipment (OE) wheel designed and manufactured by Blackstone Tek (BST). (...)

https://doi.org/10.1515/secm-2019-0018%20Received%20Jan%2028,%202019;%20accepted%20Feb%2025,%202019.%20Adapted%20from:%20Weight%20reduction%20of%20a%20carbon%20fibre%20composite%20wheel.%20Available%20at:%20https://www.researchgate.net/%20publication/335093782%20Weight%20reduction%20of%20a%20carbon%20fibre%20composite%20wheel/link/5d4e2546299bf1995b736a54/download%20[Accessed%20on%20May,%203rd,%202021].

Leia o texto para responder à questão.

    In the summer of 2014, Markie Miller discovered she’d been drinking toxic coffee. Miller lives in Toledo, Ohio, where fertilizer runoff from farms had caused blooms of toxic cyanobacteria in Lake Erie, her water supply. The city issued an alert at 2 am, but by the time Miller saw it she’d already been sipping her morning drink.

    Miller started meeting with other residents to figure out how to protect their water. But what to do? You could sue a polluter (for polluting) or a government agency (for neglecting its regulatory duties), but even if you won, the damages would be too small to be an impediment. You could assemble a class action suit of hurt residents, but that’s a ponderous and uncertain process. The real problem, of course, was that the lake itself was polluted — and individuals can’t sue over that. In the eyes of the law, they don’t have “standing.” That’s when one activist raised an idea: What if the lake itself had standing? What if the citizens of Toledo passed a law giving it legal rights?

    The idea of giving personhood to nature has been slowly gaining supporters. Environmentalists have encouraged governments and courts to award rights to lakes, hills, rivers, and even individual species of plants.

    As intrigued as I am by the idea of mountains suing mining companies, though, I’m not sure the rights of nature will hold up in US courts. Corporations are against it. Even some indigenous thinkers aren’t keen on the idea, arguing that these new laws could infringe their treaty rights. And there’s some hubris here too. How do we humans know what nature wants or if it cares if humans survive?

    Still, I think the approach is worth trying. The climate crisis is fully main stage, with California burning and Florida drowning. If we’re going to forestall worse to come, we need innovation not just in tech — more clean energy, resilient cities, genetically modified crops that need less fertilizer — but in law, the rule sets that architect our behavior.

    The deep value of the personhood movement isn’t merely legal. It’s cultural. We’ve spent generations regarding the wilderness as a bottomless box of tissues, to be used and discarded at will. So we need a better way of talking about hills and forests and oceans; we need to see them with fresh eyes. Indigenous wisdom got this right, millennia ago. If we’re going to control our abuse of nature, we need to see it as our equal.

(Clive Thompson. www.wired.com, 17.12.2019. Adaptado.)