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The process of evolution

The process of evolution involves a series of natural changes that cause species (populations of different organisms) to arise, adapt to the environment, and become extinct. All species or organisms have originated through the process of biological evolution. In animals that reproduce sexually, including humans, the term species refers to a group whose adult members regularly interbreed, resulting in fertile offspring -- that is, offspring themselves capable of reproducing. Scientists classify each species with a unique, two-part scientific name. In this system, modern humans are classified as Homo sapiens.

Evolution occurs when there is change in the genetic material -- the chemical molecule, DNA -- which is inherited from the parents, and especially in the proportions of different genes in a population. Genes represent the segments of DNA that provide the chemical code for producing proteins. Information contained in the DNA can change by a process known as mutation. The way particular genes are expressed – that is, how they influence the body or behavior of an organism -- can also change. Genes affect how the body and behavior of an organism develop during its life, and this is why genetically inherited characteristics can influence the likelihood of an organism’s survival and reproduction.

Evolution does not change any single individual. Instead, it changes the inherited means of growth and development that typify a population (a group of individuals of the same species living in a particular habitat). Parents pass adaptive genetic changes to their offspring, and ultimately these changes become common throughout a population. As a result, the offspring inherit those genetic characteristics that enhance their chances of survival and ability to give birth, which may work well until the environment changes. Over time, genetic change can alter a species' overall way of life, such as what it eats, how it grows, and where it can live. Human evolution took place as new genetic variations in early ancestor populations favored new abilities to adapt to environmental change and so altered the human way of life.

(Adapted from: http://humanorigins.si.edu/education/intro-human-evolution)

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Introduction to Human Evolution

Human evolution

Human evolution is the lengthy process of change by which people originated from apelike ancestors. Scientific evidence shows that the physical and behavioral traits shared by all people originated from apelike ancestors and evolved over a period of approximately six million years.

One of the earliest defining human traits, bipedalism -- the ability to walk on two legs -- evolved over 4 million years ago. Other important human characteristics -- such as a large and complex brain, the ability to make and use tools, and the capacity for language -- developed more recently. Many advanced traits -- including complex symbolic expression, art, and elaborate cultural diversity -- emerged mainly during the past 100,000 years.

Humans are primates. Physical and genetic similarities show that the modern human species, Homo sapiens, has a very close relationship to another group of primate species, the apes. Humans and the great apes (large apes) of Africa - - chimpanzees (including bonobos, or so-called “pygmy chimpanzees”) and gorillas -- share a common ancestor that lived between 8 and 6 million years ago. Humans first evolved in Africa, and much of human evolution occurred on that continent. The fossils of early humans who lived between 6 and 2 million years ago come entirely from Africa.

Most scientists currently recognize some 15 to 20 different species of early humans. Scientists do not all agree, however, about how these species are related or which ones simply died out. Many early human species -- certainly the majority of them – left no living descendants. Scientists also debate over how to identify and classify particular species of early humans, and about what factors influenced the evolution and extinction of each species.

Early humans first migrated out of Africa into Asia probably between 2 million and 1.8 million years ago. They entered Europe somewhat later, between 1.5 million and 1 million years. Species of modern humans populated many parts of the world much later. For instance, people first came to Australia probably within the past 60,000 years and to the Americas within the past 30,000 years or so. The beginnings of agriculture and the rise of the first civilizations occurred within the past 12,000 years.

(Adapted from: http://humanorigins.si.edu/education/intro-human-evolution)

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    The most and least addictive foods
February 25, 2015

    Food addiction might not be as real as drug or alcohol addiction, but research suggests you could be addicted to eating itself. Addicted enough to not being able to control the now-or-never food cravings, putting on considerable amount of weight and driving yourself to being obese.

    Few years ago, a group of American psychiatrists studying obesity decided to explore food addiction and find out if it actually exists. They exposed rats to extremely palatable, fatty food and to healthy food for a certain period of time. After putting a stop to unhealthy food, researchers found signs of “tolerance, withdrawal, craving and measurable changes in neural chemicals.”

    While this was one of the first few studies that explored the validity of food addiction, there have been many studies that have followed. Quite a few of them have been done on humans as well. In 2013, a group of researchers from the University of Missouri conducted a study on around 400 adults and found that obesity as a result of overeating is a type of condition that needs medical attention. The study was published in the journal PLOS One (Public Library of Sciences).

    According to another 2014 study conducted by researchers at the University of Edinburgh, “the real problem underlying our unhealthy food consumption is the psychological compulsion to eat because of the pleasure and satisfaction we get from food.” The study also went on to explain that food addiction might not be substance related but instead a psychological disorder.

    But this new study explores something different as it attempts to uncover which ‘foods or food attributes may be capable of triggering an addictive response’. The study goes on to explain - “the term ‘food’ is also broad and refers not only to foods in their natural state (e.g. vegetables), but also those with added amounts of fat and/or refined carbohydrates (e.g. cake) or artificial sweeteners (e.g. diet soda).”

    The study was conducted by two researchers from the University of Michigan and one from the Department of Medicine, New York Obesity Research Centre. Researchers recruited 500 participants and asked them to identify foods that gave them most problems as described by the Yale Food Addiction Scale. The Yale Food Addiction Scale (YFAS) is a 25 point questionnaire that was created by Ashley Gearhardt, a Yale researcher, to identify symptoms that help figure out who is more likely to be dependent on certain kinds of food.

The study listed these as the ‘most addictive foods’.

1. Ice-Cream
2. Chips
3. Chocolate
4. Cookies
5. Pizza

Here’s a list of the ‘least addictive foods’.

1. Cucumber
2. Carrots
3. Apples
4. Brown Rice
5. Beans

    If you go over the list of most addictive foods, you’ll realise that all of them are processed. They’re not just unhealthy and high on calories but also high in fat and glycemic load (GL) which is essentially a measurement of how food can raise a person’s blood sugar after they eat it.
    The current study found that highly processed foods, with added amounts of fat and/or refined carbohydrates (e.g. sugar, white flour), were most likely to be associated with behavioral indicators of addictive-like eating. While the lines between food addiction and the food itself are slightly blurry, this research might pave way to explore the exact triggers and help find a more permanent solution to food addiction and obesity

(http://food.ndtv.com)

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    The most and least addictive foods
February 25, 2015

    Food addiction might not be as real as drug or alcohol addiction, but research suggests you could be addicted to eating itself. Addicted enough to not being able to control the now-or-never food cravings, putting on considerable amount of weight and driving yourself to being obese.

    Few years ago, a group of American psychiatrists studying obesity decided to explore food addiction and find out if it actually exists. They exposed rats to extremely palatable, fatty food and to healthy food for a certain period of time. After putting a stop to unhealthy food, researchers found signs of “tolerance, withdrawal, craving and measurable changes in neural chemicals.”

    While this was one of the first few studies that explored the validity of food addiction, there have been many studies that have followed. Quite a few of them have been done on humans as well. In 2013, a group of researchers from the University of Missouri conducted a study on around 400 adults and found that obesity as a result of overeating is a type of condition that needs medical attention. The study was published in the journal PLOS One (Public Library of Sciences).

    According to another 2014 study conducted by researchers at the University of Edinburgh, “the real problem underlying our unhealthy food consumption is the psychological compulsion to eat because of the pleasure and satisfaction we get from food.” The study also went on to explain that food addiction might not be substance related but instead a psychological disorder.

    But this new study explores something different as it attempts to uncover which ‘foods or food attributes may be capable of triggering an addictive response’. The study goes on to explain - “the term ‘food’ is also broad and refers not only to foods in their natural state (e.g. vegetables), but also those with added amounts of fat and/or refined carbohydrates (e.g. cake) or artificial sweeteners (e.g. diet soda).”

    The study was conducted by two researchers from the University of Michigan and one from the Department of Medicine, New York Obesity Research Centre. Researchers recruited 500 participants and asked them to identify foods that gave them most problems as described by the Yale Food Addiction Scale. The Yale Food Addiction Scale (YFAS) is a 25 point questionnaire that was created by Ashley Gearhardt, a Yale researcher, to identify symptoms that help figure out who is more likely to be dependent on certain kinds of food.

The study listed these as the ‘most addictive foods’.

1. Ice-Cream
2. Chips
3. Chocolate
4. Cookies
5. Pizza

Here’s a list of the ‘least addictive foods’.

1. Cucumber
2. Carrots
3. Apples
4. Brown Rice
5. Beans

    If you go over the list of most addictive foods, you’ll realise that all of them are processed. They’re not just unhealthy and high on calories but also high in fat and glycemic load (GL) which is essentially a measurement of how food can raise a person’s blood sugar after they eat it.
    The current study found that highly processed foods, with added amounts of fat and/or refined carbohydrates (e.g. sugar, white flour), were most likely to be associated with behavioral indicators of addictive-like eating. While the lines between food addiction and the food itself are slightly blurry, this research might pave way to explore the exact triggers and help find a more permanent solution to food addiction and obesity

(http://food.ndtv.com)

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    The most and least addictive foods
February 25, 2015

    Food addiction might not be as real as drug or alcohol addiction, but research suggests you could be addicted to eating itself. Addicted enough to not being able to control the now-or-never food cravings, putting on considerable amount of weight and driving yourself to being obese.

    Few years ago, a group of American psychiatrists studying obesity decided to explore food addiction and find out if it actually exists. They exposed rats to extremely palatable, fatty food and to healthy food for a certain period of time. After putting a stop to unhealthy food, researchers found signs of “tolerance, withdrawal, craving and measurable changes in neural chemicals.”

    While this was one of the first few studies that explored the validity of food addiction, there have been many studies that have followed. Quite a few of them have been done on humans as well. In 2013, a group of researchers from the University of Missouri conducted a study on around 400 adults and found that obesity as a result of overeating is a type of condition that needs medical attention. The study was published in the journal PLOS One (Public Library of Sciences).

    According to another 2014 study conducted by researchers at the University of Edinburgh, “the real problem underlying our unhealthy food consumption is the psychological compulsion to eat because of the pleasure and satisfaction we get from food.” The study also went on to explain that food addiction might not be substance related but instead a psychological disorder.

    But this new study explores something different as it attempts to uncover which ‘foods or food attributes may be capable of triggering an addictive response’. The study goes on to explain - “the term ‘food’ is also broad and refers not only to foods in their natural state (e.g. vegetables), but also those with added amounts of fat and/or refined carbohydrates (e.g. cake) or artificial sweeteners (e.g. diet soda).”

    The study was conducted by two researchers from the University of Michigan and one from the Department of Medicine, New York Obesity Research Centre. Researchers recruited 500 participants and asked them to identify foods that gave them most problems as described by the Yale Food Addiction Scale. The Yale Food Addiction Scale (YFAS) is a 25 point questionnaire that was created by Ashley Gearhardt, a Yale researcher, to identify symptoms that help figure out who is more likely to be dependent on certain kinds of food.

The study listed these as the ‘most addictive foods’.

1. Ice-Cream
2. Chips
3. Chocolate
4. Cookies
5. Pizza

Here’s a list of the ‘least addictive foods’.

1. Cucumber
2. Carrots
3. Apples
4. Brown Rice
5. Beans

    If you go over the list of most addictive foods, you’ll realise that all of them are processed. They’re not just unhealthy and high on calories but also high in fat and glycemic load (GL) which is essentially a measurement of how food can raise a person’s blood sugar after they eat it.
    The current study found that highly processed foods, with added amounts of fat and/or refined carbohydrates (e.g. sugar, white flour), were most likely to be associated with behavioral indicators of addictive-like eating. While the lines between food addiction and the food itself are slightly blurry, this research might pave way to explore the exact triggers and help find a more permanent solution to food addiction and obesity

(http://food.ndtv.com)

Leia o texto para responder à questão.

    The most and least addictive foods
February 25, 2015

    Food addiction might not be as real as drug or alcohol addiction, but research suggests you could be addicted to eating itself. Addicted enough to not being able to control the now-or-never food cravings, putting on considerable amount of weight and driving yourself to being obese.

    Few years ago, a group of American psychiatrists studying obesity decided to explore food addiction and find out if it actually exists. They exposed rats to extremely palatable, fatty food and to healthy food for a certain period of time. After putting a stop to unhealthy food, researchers found signs of “tolerance, withdrawal, craving and measurable changes in neural chemicals.”

    While this was one of the first few studies that explored the validity of food addiction, there have been many studies that have followed. Quite a few of them have been done on humans as well. In 2013, a group of researchers from the University of Missouri conducted a study on around 400 adults and found that obesity as a result of overeating is a type of condition that needs medical attention. The study was published in the journal PLOS One (Public Library of Sciences).

    According to another 2014 study conducted by researchers at the University of Edinburgh, “the real problem underlying our unhealthy food consumption is the psychological compulsion to eat because of the pleasure and satisfaction we get from food.” The study also went on to explain that food addiction might not be substance related but instead a psychological disorder.

    But this new study explores something different as it attempts to uncover which ‘foods or food attributes may be capable of triggering an addictive response’. The study goes on to explain - “the term ‘food’ is also broad and refers not only to foods in their natural state (e.g. vegetables), but also those with added amounts of fat and/or refined carbohydrates (e.g. cake) or artificial sweeteners (e.g. diet soda).”

    The study was conducted by two researchers from the University of Michigan and one from the Department of Medicine, New York Obesity Research Centre. Researchers recruited 500 participants and asked them to identify foods that gave them most problems as described by the Yale Food Addiction Scale. The Yale Food Addiction Scale (YFAS) is a 25 point questionnaire that was created by Ashley Gearhardt, a Yale researcher, to identify symptoms that help figure out who is more likely to be dependent on certain kinds of food.

The study listed these as the ‘most addictive foods’.

1. Ice-Cream
2. Chips
3. Chocolate
4. Cookies
5. Pizza

Here’s a list of the ‘least addictive foods’.

1. Cucumber
2. Carrots
3. Apples
4. Brown Rice
5. Beans

    If you go over the list of most addictive foods, you’ll realise that all of them are processed. They’re not just unhealthy and high on calories but also high in fat and glycemic load (GL) which is essentially a measurement of how food can raise a person’s blood sugar after they eat it.
    The current study found that highly processed foods, with added amounts of fat and/or refined carbohydrates (e.g. sugar, white flour), were most likely to be associated with behavioral indicators of addictive-like eating. While the lines between food addiction and the food itself are slightly blurry, this research might pave way to explore the exact triggers and help find a more permanent solution to food addiction and obesity

(http://food.ndtv.com)