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Pharmaceutical industry gets high on fat profits

 

Pharmaceutical companies have developed the vast majority of medicines known to humankind, but they have profited handsomely from doing so, and not always by legitimate means. Drug companies have been accused of, and admitted to, far worse practices than making money. Until recently, paying bribes to doctors to prescribe their drugs was commonplace at big pharmas, although the practice is now generally frowned upon and illegal in many places. The rules on gifts, educational grants and sponsoring lectures, for example, are less clear cut, and these practices remain commonplace in the US. Indeed a recent study found that doctors in the US receiving payments from pharma companies were twice as likely to prescribe their drugs. This all may change when new rules in the US and UK will force doctors to disclose all gifts and payments made by the industry. Drug companies have also been accused of colluding with chemists to overcharge for their medicines and of publishing trial data that highlight the positive at the expense of the negative. The rewards are so great, it would seem, that pharma companies have continually been prepared to push the boundaries of legality. No wonder, then, that the World Health Organisation (WHO) has talked of the “inherent conflict” between the legitimate business goals of the drug companies and the medical and social needs of the wider public. Indeed the Council of Europe is launching an investigation into “protecting patients and public health against the undue influence of the pharmaceutical industry”. It will look at “particular practices such as sponsoring health professionals by the industry ... or recourse by public health institutions to the knowledge of highly specialised researchers on the pay-rolls of industry”. No matter what the outcome of such investigations, however, the pharmaceutical industry is facing fundamental change, as the traditional model of developing drugs breaks down due to rising costs and scientific advances. The cosy world of big pharmaceuticals is under threat like never before.

(Adaptado de: ANDERSON, R. Pharmaceutical industry gets high on fat profits. BBC News. Online. 6 nov. 2014. Disponível em: http://www.bbc.com/news/business-28212223. Acesso em: 12 jun. 2015.)

Com relação ao texto, atribua V (verdadeiro) ou F (falso) às afirmativas a seguir.

 

( ) Uma pesquisa constatou que a probabilidade de um médico receitar medicamentos de determinada empresa é duplicada quando ele recebe propina.

( ) As grandes corporações farmacêuticas negam as acusações de conduta antiética e afirmam agir nos limites das leis.

( ) Nos EUA, os incentivos dados aos médicos na forma de bolsas de estudo, presentes e patrocínios são regulamentados.

( ) As investigações promovidas pela Organização Mundial de Saúde acarretarão a mudança dos modos tradicionais de pesquisa e desenvolvimento de drogas.

( ) As indústrias farmacêuticas são acusadas, entre outras coisas, de adulterar dados de experiência para enfatizar aspectos favoráveis dos medicamentos.

 

Assinale a alternativa que contém, de cima para baixo, a sequência correta.

Leia o texto a seguir e responda à questão.

 

What is behind a student’s choice for becoming a doctor?

 

Purpose: To determine the reasons for choosing the medical profession by interviewing freshmen medical students from the Faculty of Medicine, University of São Paulo and investigating their socio-economic and psychological profiles, as well as to determine whether there are gender differences.

Method: One hundred and sixty three freshmen medical students answered a questionnaire regarding their socio-economical profile. Of those, 30 female and 30 male students underwent a face-to-face interview regarding the career choice, the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) and the 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF). The results were analyzed qualitatively and by Mann-Whitney, X², Fisher’s Exact, and r_p coefficient tests.

Results: Most students were middle class, catholic, and had physicians in their families. Students of both genders had made an: early choice of the medical career and persistence in taking exams many times, even after being discouraged. They also showed an awareness of the difficulties and limitations in developing their careers. The study revealed a strong valuation of the humanistic aspects of medicine; openness to new experiences; a deep personal identification with the choice of profession; a critical need for fulfillment in their careers; and conscious and unconscious desires to help people, without being narcissistic. Female students were more sensitive (P < 0.001) and less imaginative (P = 0.005) than male students, who were more utilitarian and less grounded; female students tended to present greater emotional maturity while male students presented a greater tendency towards competition, and were more ambitious.

Conclusions: Students of both genders have similar socio-economical profiles and features regarding their motivations for choosing the medical profession. Slight differences were found regarding some psychological aspects.

Keywords: Medical students. Personality. Career choice. Gender. Education.

(Adaptado de: MILLAN, L. R. et al. What is behind a student’s choice for becoming a doctor? Clinics. v.60. n.2. p.143-150. apr. 2005. Disponível em: http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1807-59322005000200011&lng=en&nrm=iso. Acesso em: 31 maio 2015.)

Com relação ao texto, considere as afirmativas a seguir.

 

I. Os alunos fizeram opção pela profissão mais precocemente e se mostraram mais perseverantes na busca pela carreira médica do que as alunas.

II. Estudantes de ambos os gêneros manifestaram uma tendência a um comportamento altruísta e uma consciência dos obstáculos da carreira médica.

III. Em comparação com os alunos, as alunas demonstraram maior empatia, maior maturidade emocional, porém são menos criativas.

IV. O estudo indica haver semelhanças entre alunos e alunas de medicina acerca da importância da profissão em suas identidades apesar de sutis diferenças psicológicas.

 

Assinale a alternativa correta.

Read the comic and answer question

In the comic, the grandfather is

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How ‘Human’ Is This Newly Discovered Species?
Justin Worland @justinworland (Sept. 10, 2015)

 

The discovery of a new human-related species, named Homo naledi, has thrown the evolutionary biology world for a loop. The newfound species, uncovered in a South African cave system, appears to be an odd combination of primitive and modern features not previously seen together.

 

From the remains of at least 15 individuals, scientists assembled the skeletal system of Homo naledi and published the findings in the journal eLife. The new species has some remarkably human-like similarities, namely its hands and feet—though its brain is much smaller, as is its frame. Human hands have played a key role in the evolution of Homo sapiens, and that’s one of the similarities between humans and Homo naledi. Individuals of the Homo naledi species had opposable thumbs much like our own that would have allowed them dexterity somewhat like that of humans. The curved nature of the hands also suggests that the species may have had climbing abilities. Many of our close ancestors, including chimpanzees and apes, have opposable thumbs.

 

Perhaps the most significant similarity is not anatomical. Scientists say the cave location the Homo naledi remains were found appears to be a burial chamber. Burying the dead was a practice previously thought to be a unique human trait.

 

These similarities carry significance from an evolutionary perspective, but a number of traits make humans stand out from our predecessors. Human brains are typically between 1,100 and 1,200 cubic centimeters. Scientists estimated that the brain in Homo naledi would have been about half that size. Brain size isn’t everything when it comes to intelligent life and evolution, of course, but the structure of the brain in Homo naledi, revealed by the shape of the skull, also suggests a more primitive brain. Together, when comparing humans to a direct ancestor, the brain does suggest some distance between humans and Homo naledi.

 

The frame, including the shoulders and pelvis, also bears closer resemblance to early hominin species. Overall, scientists believe Homo naledi individuals weigh less than their human counterparts.

 

The differences between humans and Homo naledi are significant, but that doesn’t diminish the significance of the finding. The discovery of a human-related species just underscores how little we know about the life forms that preceded ours’ millions of years ago.

(Adapted from: http://time.com/4029312/how-human-is-homo-naledi).

According to the new discovery, we can say that

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The process of evolution

 

The process of evolution involves a series of natural changes that cause species (populations of different organisms) to arise, adapt to the environment, and become extinct. All species or organisms have originated through the process of biological evolution. In animals that reproduce sexually, including humans, the term species refers to a group whose adult members regularly interbreed, resulting in fertile offspring -- that is, offspring themselves capable of reproducing. Scientists classify each species with a unique, two-part scientific name. In this system, modern humans are classified as Homo sapiens.

 

Evolution occurs when there is change in the genetic material -- the chemical molecule, DNA -- which is inherited from the parents, and especially in the proportions of different genes in a population. Genes represent the segments of DNA that provide the chemical code for producing proteins. Information contained in the DNA can change by a process known as mutation. The way particular genes are expressed – that is, how they influence the body or behavior of an organism -- can also change. Genes affect how the body and behavior of an organism develop during its life, and this is why genetically inherited characteristics can influence the likelihood of an organism’s survival and reproduction.

 

Evolution does not change any single individual. Instead, it changes the inherited means of growth and development that typify a population (a group of individuals of the same species living in a particular habitat). Parents pass adaptive genetic changes to their offspring, and ultimately these changes become common throughout a population. As a result, the offspring inherit those genetic characteristics that enhance their chances of survival and ability to give birth, which may work well until the environment changes. Over time, genetic change can alter a species' overall way of life, such as what it eats, how it grows, and where it can live. Human evolution took place as new genetic variations in early ancestor populations favored new abilities to adapt to environmental change and so altered the human way of life.

(Adapted from: http://humanorigins.si.edu/education/intro-human-evolution)

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Introduction to Human Evolution

Human evolution

 

Human evolution is the lengthy process of change by which people originated from apelike ancestors. Scientific evidence shows that the physical and behavioral traits shared by all people originated from apelike ancestors and evolved over a period of approximately six million years.

 

One of the earliest defining human traits, bipedalism -- the ability to walk on two legs -- evolved over 4 million years ago. Other important human characteristics -- such as a large and complex brain, the ability to make and use tools, and the capacity for language -- developed more recently. Many advanced traits -- including complex symbolic expression, art, and elaborate cultural diversity -- emerged mainly during the past 100,000 years.

 

Humans are primates. Physical and genetic similarities show that the modern human species, Homo sapiens, has a very close relationship to another group of primate species, the apes. Humans and the great apes (large apes) of Africa - - chimpanzees (including bonobos, or so-called “pygmy chimpanzees”) and gorillas -- share a common ancestor that lived between 8 and 6 million years ago. Humans first evolved in Africa, and much of human evolution occurred on that continent. The fossils of early humans who lived between 6 and 2 million years ago come entirely from Africa.

 

Most scientists currently recognize some 15 to 20 different species of early humans. Scientists do not all agree, however, about how these species are related or which ones simply died out. Many early human species -- certainly the majority of them – left no living descendants. Scientists also debate over how to identify and classify particular species of early humans, and about what factors influenced the evolution and extinction of each species.

 

Early humans first migrated out of Africa into Asia probably between 2 million and 1.8 million years ago. They entered Europe somewhat later, between 1.5 million and 1 million years. Species of modern humans populated many parts of the world much later. For instance, people first came to Australia probably within the past 60,000 years and to the Americas within the past 30,000 years or so. The beginnings of agriculture and the rise of the first civilizations occurred within the past 12,000 years.

(Adapted from: http://humanorigins.si.edu/education/intro-human-evolution)

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